ALL ABOUT BAKERY & CONFECTIONERY

              HISTORY OF BREAD

 

BREAD!!!!…….A word of many meanings, a symbol of giving, one food that is common to so many countries….but what really is bread????

The Hungarians have a saying that bread is older than man is. More than 12000 years ago, primitive people made flat breads by mixing coarsely ground grain and water and placing these cakes in the sun to bake. Later, bread was baked/cooked on heated rocks or in the ashes/embers of the fires.
It was the Egyptians who are credited with using a starter of wild yeast from the air that was kept and mixed with the dough to create a leavened product. Legend has it that a slave in a royal Egyptian household forgot about some dough he had made and kept aside. When he returned, it had doubled in size. Trying to hide the mistake, the dough was punched down furiously and baked. The result was lighter bread than anyone had ever tasted.

The ancient Greeks had over 50 kinds of bread. The government built public bakeries and ovens for every ones use and were popular places to meet the neighbors. The Romans continued the idea of the public bakeries. They also required that every baker put an identification stamp on their loafs. In Roman times, grain was ground with millstones and the finest flour was sifted through silk sieves.

                    BREAD

Good food needs good bread and to make good bread one needs to understand the components (ingredients) that are used in bread making, and their functions. The basic ingredients are Flour, Salt, Yeast and Water.

Before we go on to discuss the different components of bread, let us first list the different types of dough.

Bulk Fermented Dough: This is the process that most bakers use to prepare bread. Flour and salt are blended with yeast and water and mixed to smooth clear dough. The dough is then covered to prevent drying out and a skin forming, and then giving a period of bulk fermentation. Here all the ingredients are mixed at once and allowed to ferment. The dough is then knocked back (de gassed) after about two thirds of the fermentation has taken place and then kneaded to encourage further yeast activity. In addition, to equalize the dough temperature. When the fermentation is complete, the dough is weighed off into loafs/rolls. The total fermentation can vary from one to twelve hours, depending on the recipe.

No Time Dough: This process speeds up the fermentation process by adding an improver that contains chemicals that would naturally be produced by fermentation, given a little more time. Flour, Yeast, Salt and water with the improver are blended into a dough, but the mixing is continued for almost double the time. Until the gluten is developed sufficiently. It is preferable to use a machine rather than mixing by hand. When mixing is complete, the dough is ready for scaling (weighing). A little extra yeast is added in recipes using improvers, as the quick fermentation does not allow the yeast to grow to its normal levels. As this process does not allow time for the gluten to mellow properly, about 4% extra water must be added to compensate. The extra water will increase the yield, which should pay for the improver. No time dough is ideal for those kitchens with limited time, space and facilities. Improvers also assist prolonged quality maintenance. Improvers also help make reasonable quality bread that has less gluten (weak flour).

 

Ferment and Dough: This process is meant for heavily enriched dough’s, to allow yeast to become accustomed to the high amount of fat and sugar, which have been added, and which will slow yeast activity. In the first stage, the ferment yeast is blended into a thin batter and fermented with about 20% of the flour mentioned in the recipe and with all the water. Fermentation depends on the yeast content. It is best fermented in a prover or in similar conditions. The first ferment is then blended with the rest of the flour, salt, fat and perhaps milk powder to form a dough. This is the second or the dough stage and is bulk fermented for roughly the same time as the ferment. The dough can then be scaled.

TEMPERATURE

It is important to maintain the ideal dough temperature, which controls the speed of fermentation. Even for basic bread dough, it is necessary to be exact to get the best from the raw material. The best temperature for fermentation is between 25°C and 28°C. Above 32°C, fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker. Under 24°C, fermentation is slow. As water temperature can be readjusted, it is the medium that controls the temperature of the dough, determines the water temperature and the rule of thumb is the doubling method. Double the required dough temperature, take the temperature of the flour and subtract that from the above number. The result is the required water temperature. If the dough is required at 28°C, and the flour temperature is 18°C, then 2x28=56, 56-18=38. Therefore the water temperature should be 38°C. Water is essential to bread making to hydrate the insoluble wheat portions forming gluten. Dissolve the salt, sugar and soluble proteins and form an elastic dough. Water has a marked effect on the speed of fermentation – a thin batter fermenting faster than a tight dough. The water content in dough will vary according to the water Absorption Powers (WAP) of various flours.

THE COMPONENTS

SALT – good bread needs salt to offset the blandness and bring out the flavors present. It is also necessary to stabilize the gluten, help retain the moisture and control the fermenting yeast, which in turn will affect the crumb or texture of bread and the crust color. Fermentation is too rapid in dough with too little salt, which checks the growth of yeast so more sugar is converted to gas. Because the gluten is also weakened, it offers less resistance to the gas expansion, leaving too much volume and loose crumb texture. The bread lacks brightness and the flavor is insipid. Too much salt seriously retards yeast activity. Excessive amounts will stop fermentation. With the yeast activity slowed down, there is a corresponding of the tightening of the gluten resulting in a smaller volume. At worst, the result is a heavy, rubber like mass with a taste of excessive salt.

 

YEAST – is a living organism of the fungal family of plants, which changes sugar into CO2 (carbon di oxide), alcohol and other by-products. The gas is caught up in the gluten network, which aerates the dough. The second function of yeast, equally vital to producing quality bread, is to assist the ripening or mellowing of the gluten in the dough, so that when the item is baked, the gluten is in a condition, which gives evenly to the expanding gases and at the same time retains them (gases). For fermentation to occur, yeast needs a source of glucose (a simple sugar). Small amounts of glucose and fructose in the dough are fermented directly by the yeast. Other sugars and carbohydrates are converted to glucose by enzymes in the flour. Yeast must be in a good condition to work efficiently. It should be cool to the touch and a creamy color. If it is dark ad of a soft sticky consistency, with an unpleasant odor, then it should not be used. Small quantities can be kept pressed into a small bar and stored in a cool place. Yeast works best between 25C and 28C. Above this, the fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker as the temperature increases until 55C to 60C, when yeast is killed. Between 23C and 25C, yeast works slowly, till at 25C, fermentation stops. It should never be mixed with dry salt or sugar or dispensed in a strong solution of either, which will kill the yeast. As a living organism, it can never be dissolved in liquid.

 

FLOUR - there are two basic types of flour used for bread making, whole meal and strong white flour. Whole meal flour contains whole-wheat grains, with nothing added or taken away during processing, Strong with flour has higher protein content and therefore more gluten than soft cake flour. Whole meal flours have a higher water absorption rate than white flours so the dough may be stickier. Extra enzymes in the bran coating of the grain speed up the dough ripening so the dough temperature should be a little cooler to slow down the fermentation. Because the physical and chemical changes in the dough are more rapid, whole meal dough needs shorter fermentation.

 

GLUTEN - Without gluten in the dough, there could be no bread. Gluten is developed in bread during the manipulation (mixing) of the dough, when two proteins – glutenin and gliadin combine in the presence of moisture (water) to form gluten. Gluten strands traps the gas generated by the yeast and holds it in the dough structure. When it coagulates, it becomes the framework of the dough, so that it does not collapse. Gluten is conditioned by many factors including the amount of yeast and how active it is, the amount of salt and water in the dough, fermentation time, dough temperature, the acidity of the dough and manipulation (kneading). Given good material and correct balance, nothing contributes to good bread making than properly made dough. The kneading, fermentation and the knocking back are also important. Proper mixing gives gluten the opportunity to absorb the maximum water and become thoroughly hydrated.

 

IMPROVERS - contain chemicals, which would be produced in dough naturally, given time, under the skilled eye of the baker. The are used in no Time dough, 1 to 1 1/2 % for rich dough and 2½% in leaner dough. For basic bread goods 2% improver are added to the flour, water salt and yeast, and is calculated on the basis of the flour only. For dough that is enriched with fat and sugar and eggs, 1 to 1 1/2% is enough. The active ingredients in a typical improver would include sugar, pure emulsifier, soya or guar flour, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and enzyme active malt flour.

RETARDATION

Retardation is the arresting of fermentation at temperatures between 2°C and 4°C. It enables the dough to be made in bulk, retarded and then baked through the day as and when required. This ensures freshness and standard quality. Enriched dough which ferments slowly, retard the best and can be kept for up to 72 hours. Retardation can be done in two ways:  the dough is given between 50-70% of its Bulk Fermentation Time (BFT), then rolled out in 3 kgs-4kgs pieces to quickly take out its heat, and then refrigerated. In the second method, the dough is again given 50-70% of its BFT and then made into pieces, refrigerated and then kneaded, and then brought back to room temperature. The final proving should not be forced. The dough should be cooled before retarding as a high temperature will extend fermentation before retardation is effective. To avoid crusting of the dough, it should be kept in the refrigerator at 75% humidity or in polythene bags.

 

DOUGH ENRICHMENT

Dough is sometimes enriched with fat, milk or egg yolks, to increase the food value, add to the taste and flavour, and to produce a softer crumb (texture) and also to retard staling. Salt will have to be reduced when using salted butter. Fermentation is slower in enriched dough, so the dough should be kept a little softer and for a slightly longer time.

 

POINTS TO NOTE

- Take careful note of the formula/recipe and the method,

- See that the scales are accurate and the scale pans are clean.

- Carefully weigh the flour, sieve it, and take temperature,

- Calculate water temperature and measure.

- Disperse yeast in a little water, add salt in the rest of the water and add     to the flour,

- Mix thoroughly until clear and elastic.

-Take the dough temperature and cover the dough to prevent skin formation. - Prove in a place at the correct temperature or in the prover.

- Knock back when proved according to the BFT.

- Prove rolls in the prover or at controlled temperature and humidity.

- Cover with greased polythene sheet to prevent skin formation

- Egg/starch wash and cutting is best done when the dough is ¾ proved.

-        Rolls are baked at 230°C with steam.

STEPS IN BREAD MAKING OPERATIONS

To start with, the ingredients should be correctly scaled and weighed as per a good recipe. Baking is a science, it is essential to begin correctly with the right ingredients in the correct proportions.

1. FERMENTATION:  the dough should be fermented for the proper length of time, during which the yeast cells act on the sugars and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. A number of physical and chemical changes take place during this time.

Physical changes include:

-        steady increase in the volume of the dough and can be up to five times its original volume

-        increase in temperature by about 5°C to 6°C

-        Increase in the number of yeast cells by about 26% in straight dough and 56% in sponge dough.

-        Loss of moisture

-        Change in the consistency of the dough – it becomes soft, elastic and extensible

Chemical changes include:

-        the PH of the dough reduces from 5.5 to 4.7 due to the production of acetic acid, lactic acid, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid

-        formation of maltose by diastatic enzymes by acting on starch

-        production of carbon dioxide and alcohol by enzymatic reactions

-        Mellowing of the gluten by proteolytic enzymes present in the flour and yeast.

Fermentation time will depend on:

-        type of flour

-        quantity of the yeast

-        temperature of the dough

-        presence of yeast food (sugar)

 

2. FERMENTATION CONTROL

It is important to control the fermentation so that the gas production and the gas retention coincide as closely as possible. If the peak of gas production in the dough is reached before its gas retention capacity is at a maximum, then much of the gas will be dissipated and not enough will be left to aerate the dough when its extensibility is at its highest point. On the other hand if the dough reaches its optimum gas retention capacity before gas production is at its highest rate, much of the gas will be lost subsequently. Hence, fermentation control is important to have the development of gas production and gas retention capacities at a parallel and even rate.

 

3. GAS PRODUCTION:

Gas production will increase with:

-        addition of malt and sugar

-        the increase of yeast concentration

-        the presence of yeast food

-        high temperature of the dough (35°C)

 

Gas production decreases with:

-        addition of salt

-        excess amounts of yeast foods

-        higher temperature of the dough (above 35°C)

 

4. GAS RETENTION

Gas retention is governed by chemical and physical factors such as minerals, moisture, PH, proteolytic enzymes and oxidising agents, mixing, dough expansion, punching (knocking back).

 

5. FERMENTATION LOSSES

The weight loss in fermented dough is in the range of 0.5 to 4%. However, under average conditions it is 1%. The loss in weight is normally attributed to the loss in moisture, which depends on the temperature and the relative humidity. Minor loss may be attributed to the escape of carbon dioxide.

 

6. KNOCK BACK

Punching of the dough in between fermentation periods:

-        increases the gas retention of the dough

-        Equalises the temperature throughout the dough and ensures more even fermentation.

-        Reduces the retarding effect of excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide

-        Introduces atmospheric oxygen and stimulates yeast activity

-        Aids the mechanical development of gluten by the stretching and folding actions

The first punch is normally given when 60% of the fermentation is complete and the second punch is given in half the time required for the first punch.

 

7. DOUGH MAKE UP

The function of dough make up is to transform the dough into properly scaled and moulded dough pieces, which after prooving and baking will yield the desired bread. The operations involved include:

a)     Scaling (dividing): the dough is divided into individual pieces of pre determined uniform weight and size. The weight of the dough depends on the final weight of the dough. Generally, 12% extra dough is weighted to compensate for the baking losses. Dividing should be performed in the minimum amount of time to ensure even weight as the dough is scaled on volumetric basis. Longer time changes the density of the dough due to production of carbon dioxide by yeast, thereby changing the weight of the divided dough. If there is delay n dividing, corrective steps such as de gassing the dough or increasing the size of the dough should be taken. The de gassers are essentially dough pumps which fed the dough into the hopper and in the process remove most of the gas. The advantage of using de gassers are:

-        more uniform scaling

-        Uniform texture and grain of the bread.

b)     Rounding The dough pieces, which had lost a good part of the gas during the dividing, is irregular in shape and sticky with perhaps cut surfaces. The function of the rounding (using a rounder), is to impart a new continuous skin that will retain the gas as well as reduce the stickiness.

 

c)     Intermediate Proof: Dough that has undergone dividing and rounding operations has lost much gas, lacks extensibility and will tear easily. It is rubbery and will not mould properly. To restore a more flexible and pliable structure, which will respond well to the manipulations of the moulder, it is necessary to let the dough rest while the fermentation continues.

d)     Moulding: The dough is now moulded into the required shapes.

 

9. FINAL PROOF

The purpose of the final proof is to relax the dough from the stress received during the moulding operations and to facilitate the production of gas in order to give volume to the loaf. It also changes the tough gluten to a good, mellow and extensible character.

10 BAKING

It is the most important step in bread making and the heat transforms the unpalatable dough into a light porous readily digestible and flavoured product. The factors that influence the quality of baked products are the baking temperature, humidity and the duration of baking (baking time). There are two types of changes that take place during baking.

 

Physical Changes:

Film Formation: when the dough is placed in the oven, the effect of heat is the instantaneous formation of a thin expandable surface film. The length of the time that the film remains expandable depends on the temperature and the moisture conditions of the oven.

1.     Oven Spring: Sudden expansion of the dough volume by about 1/3^rd of its original size in the oven is called oven spring. In short, it is the difference in height of the product, before and after baking. The dough piece containing millions of minute gas cells, under the influence of heat, begins to expand. As the pressure in the gas cells increases and causes expansion of cell walls, the carbon dioxide generated by yeast in the dough is liberated at about 50°C. the freed gas increases the pressure in the gas cells causing expansion of the dough. The evaporation of alcohol and other low boiling point liquid increases the gas pressure, leading to an additional expansion of gas cells.

Chemical changes:

1.     Yeast Activity: the yeast in the dough will generate carbon dioxide and alcohol with the rate of generation increasing the temperature until the thermal death point of yeast (60°C) is reached.

2.     Starch Gelatinization: the oven spring due to the softening of gluten in the early stages of baking is counter acted by the starch swelling which begins at about 54C. The degree of gelatinizaton is restricted by the limited availability of water.

3.     Gluten Coagulation: Starch geltinization is associated with water absorption resulting in the removal of water in gluten as it denatures, Gluten coagulation sets in at about 74°C and continues till the end of baking. In this process, gluten is transformed into a semi-rigid cell structure. The major change that takes place during baking is the re distribution of water from gluten phase to starch phase.

 

 

                  BREAD FAULTS

A good bread should be judged by its volume, bloom, shape, color, texture, sheen, moistness and flavor. In general, one should examine the external area and the internal (crumb) area of the bread.

Bread faults can arise from many causes. Flour varies in grade, in gluten content and quality. Color also varies and so does the maltose content. When examining the faults in the loaf of bread, the temperature and timings, methods of manipulation, addition of materials, errors in setting and timing of machinery, all must be taken into account.

 

EXTERNAL FAULTS

1.        Lack of volume: The major causes of this fault are

-        a dough that is too tight and with too little yeast

-        Too much salt will cause under ripening, conducive to small volume.

-        Flour with low maltose will produce bread of less than normal volume. Over bleached flour or the excess use of chemical improvers, will also produce this fault.

 

2. Excessive volume:

Dough with

-        low salt content

-        excess final proof

-        loose moulding

will produce a bread of excessive volume

Excess salt decreases the stability of gluten. An excessively slack dough also produces a bread with excess volume. This can be adjusted by altering the proving time. A cool oven causes fermentation to continue in the oven. Therefore there will be too much oven spring.

 

3.Lack of Crust Color: Baking the bread in a cool oven renders the loaf colorless. The other causes for lack of crust color may be:

-        over ripe dough, due to extended fermentation period (all the sugar is used up)

-        excess water content

-        lack of maltose

-        lack of salt

1.        Excess Crust Color: The likely causes are

-        insufficient fermentation

-        excessive use of sugar

-        flour might have been milled from sprouted wheat (partially)

-        baking too quickly and at too high a temperature

2.        Shell Tops: This is due to the formation of a crust on top of the loaf before maximum expansion has taken place. The pressure from within the loaf exerts itself in such a way that the top of the loaf lifts in the form of a lid.

3.        Rough Surfaces: The crust of over fermented dough is always rough. Use less yeast. Bad molding can also cause unsightly crust surfaces.

4.        Collapsing Bread: Collapsing bread is caused by insufficient tensile strength of the dough. Such dough is mainly due to too much water, malt or gluten improvers. Other causes could be

-        over proving

-        baking in cold oven

-        Disturbance of the dough before entering the oven.

Extraneous matter that may have been an accident, can lodge itself in the mass of the dough. However there can be no excuse for dark smears caused by dirty tin grease, finger marks or the dirt from unclean racks and boxes.

 

EXTERNAL FAULTS

1.        Holes in the crumb: A dough made from flour weak in gluten, especially when the yeast content is high, will cause holes, because the gluten has little power of gas retention and the weaker cells will break down during baking. Faulty manipulation after bulk fermentation destroys the elasticity of the gluten and therefore the expansion does not proceed evenly, breakage occurs and large holes are formed in the mass.

2.        Cores Seams Streaks and Condensation Marks: The most common cause for cores is the incorporation of pellets or hard flour or dough particles. Another common cause is the turning in of a dry skin when moulding. Slight over proving or over malting often cause a core near the bottom of the loaf.

        Seams are dense layers of inedible bread. He careless causes them handling when loading. Movement of    the dough in the oven during baking makes the delicate dough structure tremble and collapse sufficiently to form a seam or a heavy uncooked layer.

       Streaks are evidence of uneven manipulation of the dough in the final stages. Loose moulding and insufficient final proof are also causes of streaks. Dark streaks are also caused by high maltose flour.

 

   Condensation marks are due to improper packing.

3.        Damp Clammy or Close Crunch:

The common causes are:

-        Use of high maltose flour, milled from sprouted wheat.

-        Overloading the dough with enriching agents

-        Use of very weak flour

-        Over machining the dough

-        Wrapping the bread prematurely

-        Development of a ropy condition

 

4.        Crumbliness: A slack dough will produce crumbly bread. Crumbliness is related to the degree of fermentation. If the fermentation is insufficient, then the gluten is not conditioned and the crumb has neither the resilience nor tensile strength necessary to whit stand the action of cutting the loaf. Excessive mineral improvers also cause crumbliness.

         BREAD IMPROVERS

 

We refer to flour as being either strong or weak. The strength of flour varies according to its strength and also according to factors such as starch content, sugar content, the water absorption power (WAP) of the flour and even the  color. These aspects will affect the final outcome. In order to make good bread, it is not always possible to use the right type of flour as the availability may vary. It becomes necessary therefore to add something to the dough in order to bring the product to a pre determined standard. This addition should be with discretion on knowledge, otherwise, the quality of the bread instead of improving, may actually worsen.

Bread improvers are substances, which when added to dough, enables the baker to produce an improved loaf with better keeping qualities, finer textures, softer crumb, added bloom and enhanced flavor.

There are three main types of bread improvers:

 

1.     Mineral additives

2.     Yeast foods

3.     Enriching agents

MINERAL ADDITIVES

Mineral bread improvers are used during the milling of wheat flour. They are commonly used by the baker during production as well. They will include:

 

-      Perusulphates – used by the miller at the rate of ¼ to ½ oz per 280 lbs (one sack). The perusulphates used are pottassium and ammonium. Flour treated with perusulphates will take on more water and an increased yield is obtained.

-        Glyceral Mono Stearate - The mono glyceral ester of stearic acid, which has remarkable emulsifying power, is used as an emulsion stabiliser and as a crumb softener in bread.

-        Potassium Bromate – It is used by the miller at the rate of 1 lb per sack (280 lbs). Bromate increases the stability on the gluten to extend. Bromate has an astringent action on gluten thereby increasing the use of water in the dough. It also increases the gas retaining properties of the gluten, thus improving loaf volume.

-        Phosphates – Acid calcium phosphates and ammonium phosphates both have a tightening action on gluten and since phosphates are a necessary constituent of yeast food, they are both fermented stimulants. Acid calcium phosphate (ACP) is used at the rate of 1 lb per sack (280lbs) which can be increased to 2 lbs per sack to inhibit the development of rope. A phosphate is added at the rate of 8 oz per sack.

-        Lime Water – Lime water was used to retard the fermentation of the dough in hot weather climates. In addition, it has astringent action on the gluten. As lime is alkaline, it reduces the acidity of the dough and thus slows the rate of the fermentation. It is used at the rate of 1 quart per sack.

-        Organic acid – Organic acids are natural constituents of fermented dough. They are added to get the dough better conditioned. Lactic acid can be added at the rate of 8 oz per sack. Sussinic acid is added at the rate of 2-4 oz per sack.

YEAST FOODS

Yeast foods indirectly affect the bread in a number of ways by their effect on fermentation. Malt not only provides food directly to the yeast but manufactures further supplies as and when needed whilst simultaneously mellowing and softening the gluten of the flour.

There are two types of malt: diastatic and non diastatic.

Diastatic malt add to the flavor, it increases the sugar content in the dough and provides diastatic sugar for the fermentation process. Diastatic enzymes also contain proolytic enzymes which modify gluten. Non Diastatic malt serves the dual purpose of providing sugar as well as adding to the flavor.

Flour contains natural sugar. Principally, this is sucrose in varying amounts. Normally, it is 2.5 –3%. This amount is not sufficient for satisfactory fermentation. There must be sufficient sugar present for the production of gas that will give the loaf the required volume and to allow for the caramelization of the crust during baking. As sugar contains no nitrogen, they cannot be considered complete foods for yeast, but they produce material from which CO2 can be produced. Demerara sugar and even treacle can be used in brown breads as they are excellent for imparting flavor and retaining color.

 

ENRICHING AGENTS

 

Enrichment is a way of increasing nutritional value of the bread along with improvements in volume, texture and the keeping quality of the bread

Fats -  Fats have a physical rather than a chemical effect on dough. As fat is a shortening agent, it reduces toughness, thus making the product more mellow. It is particularly valuable for use with strong flour with a tough and harsh gluten content. Fats can be used in small quantities to give optimum effect. Fat also increases food value. They add to the moistness in bread thereby retarding staling. They also impart flavor to the bread.

 

Milk and Milk Products  - Whole milk added to dough has the effect of adding fat as well as sugar, besides calcium salts and casein.

 

 

Eggs – The incorporation of eggs in a bread dough results in many improvements. Egg adds to the increased volume, better texture and better oven spring. It is economical to use as it contributes immensely to improved quality and volume of the product.

                           FROZEN DESSERTS

 

In present times, frozen desserts have become so popular that they are now a major profit - making item on the menu in many commercial outlets such as fast foods and coffee shops. It also has an advantage that they can be prepared in advance and can be stored for long periods of time. Ice creams are purchased ready- made and require no preparation time, space or manpower.

 

-        Frozen Yoghurts contains yoghurt in addition to the normal ingredients for ice cream

-        Sherbets and Ices made from fruit juices, water and sugar. American sherbets usually contain cream or milk and sometimes egg whites. The egg whites increase smoothness and volume. Ices, which are also called water ices, contain only fruit juices, purees and sugar. The do not contain milk products and are often referred to as sorbets or granite. Ice creams and sorbets are churn frozen and are constantly mixed while they are freezing. If they are not churned, they would freeze into a solid block of ice. The churning keeps the ice crystals small and also incorporates air into the ice cream.

-        Frozen souffle, bavarois and mousses are referred to as still-frozen desserts. There is no churning involved. Egg whites or fresh cream is incorporated to give lightness.

-        Specialty ice creams are commonly found ways in which ice creams are served. These include :

1.       Bombes

2.       Parfaits

3.       Coupes/sundaes

4.       Meringues glace

5.       Baked alaska

6.       Frozen eclairs and profiteroles

What is Ice cream?

Technically, ice cream may be defined as the partly frozen foam with an air content of 40-50% air by volume. The continuous phase of the foam contains dissolved and colloidal solids such as sugars, proteins and stabilizers. The fatty phase is in the emulsified form. Some of the milk proteins are structurally related to the fat globules of the emulsion.

Imitation ice cream is known as Mellorine and is made now in many parts of the world. Mellorine is cheaper than ice cream because in expensive vegetable fats and oils are substituted for the more expensive dairy fats. Other than this, mellorine has almost the same composition as ice cream. There is still no cheap substitute for milk protein, although some vegetable proteins, particularly from soy bean, with improved flavors are used to prepare lactose free ice creams.

Prevention of food adulteration Act (PFA) Rule A 11.02.08, defines ice cream and kulfi as under:

The frozen food obtained from cow or buffalo milk, or a combination thereof, or from cream and /or milk product with or without the addition of cane sugar (dextrose, liquid glucose and dried liquid glucose), eggs, fruit and fruit juices, preserved fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavors and permitted food colors. It may contain permitted stabilizers and emulsifiers not exceeding.5% by weight. The mixture should be suitably heated before freezing. The product must contain not less than 10% milk fat, not less than 36% total solids, except when the aforesaid preparation contains fruits, nuts or both, the content of the milk fat shall not be less than 8% by weight. Starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5% under the declaration on the label. The standards of ice cream shall also be applied to softee.

Ice cream is a complex system in which the stable mixed emulsion of four phase system of fat-water-ice-air, must be balanced and protected from breaking and separating.

 

The blend of milk fat and non fat solids with sugar must result in a product of pleasing taste and one which is smooth and creamy. Composition of the mix is important, but the most critical stage of ice cream manufacture is the mechanical blending, freezing and hardening of the ice cream.

 

COMPOSITION OF ICE CREAM

 

The ingredients used in ice cream manufacture are milk, skim milk powder, cream, butterfat, sugar, stabilizers, emulsifiers, food grade flavors and permitted colors. Chocolate, dried fruits and nuts, honey, fruit pulps and other such ingredients are also added to give variety.

 

Normal ice creams will have a milk fat content of 10-14% but richer ice cream will have a dairy fat content of up to 20-24%. Proteins are usually between 3.5-4%, sugar 14-15%, stabilizers .3-.5% and emulsifiers .1-.2%

 

MANUFACTURE OF ICE CREAM

 

The following are the steps involved in the processing of ice cream:

-    Pasteurization

-        Homogenization

-        Cooling

-        Ageing

-        Freezing

-        Hardening

-        Storage

-        Transportation and delivery

 

After weighing or metering by volume, the ingredients are heated together in a jacketed tank with strong agitation so as to form a core emulsion with large fat globules up to 15 gms in size. Pasteurization treatment may be carried out in the mixing tanks. During Homogenization, the mix is converted into a true emulsion with a fat globule size of less than 2 gms. For efficient homogenization, the fat phase should be completely liquid and hence a temperature near pasteurization temperature is preferred. Homogenization of the ice cream mix is normally carried out at a pressure of 140-210 kg/cm2. At the end of this treatment, it is often found that individual small fat globules cohere in clumps, resulting in a viscous mix with poor processing properties in subsequent stages. A second homogenization at lower pressure of 35kg/cm2 is used to break up the clumps.

 

The emulsion is now cooled immediately to 4°C sometimes using a super cool.

 

The next step is ageing. The cooled emiulsion is usually styored in a thermostatically controlled vessel for 2-8 hours because ageing improves freezer performance and produces better ice cream structure. During ageing, the stabilizer hydrates fully and increases the viscosity of the mix. The importance of ageing will vary with different stabilizers. Significant improvement in texture is noted at this stage.

FREEZING

Ice cream is available in two forms:

1. As hard ice cream which has been frozen in a continuous freezer and is either extruded, shaped or packed in small individual portions or in the larger family packs. The final processing step now is hardening at a low temperature cold store at –30 to -40°C before it is distributed in refrigerated transport.

2. As soft ice cream which is frozen in a small batch freezer situated at the retail outlet. Ice cream mix for this type of operation is provided as a pasteurized mix which must be stored at 4°C after manufacture. This is often referred to as the softee ice cream. 

STORAGE OF ICE CREAM

 

Ice cream can be stored at 0°F (-18°C) to prevent large ice crystal formation.

For service, temper frozen ice cream till it is soft enough to serve. If scooping, the ice cream scoop must be rolled over the surface so that the ice cream forms into a round ball.

FUNCTIONS OF SOME OF THE INGREDIENTS:

 

-        Sugar: Sugar represents half the total amount of solids in the ice cream mix. It includes lactose, which is the natural milk sugar. Sugars act as a sweetening agent, depress the freezing point, influence the consistency and to some extent the size of the ice crystals and the lactose crystallization of the frozen ice cream.

 

-        Stabilizers: Gelatin was the first stablilzer used in the manufacture of ice cream. Since then a number of poly saccharide stabilizers have become available. These include sodium carboxy methyl micro crystalline cellulose, sodium alginate, cerragaenan, agar pectin, xanthin gums, carobbean and guar gum. Often a combination of these is used. Stabilizers perform several functions in the manufacture of ice cream. They increase the viscosity, thereby improving the body and creaminess of the ice cream. They also regulate the development of the ice crystals and thereby give a smooth texture to the ice cream. During inevitable temperature fluctuations, they minimise the development of large crystals and the undesirable coarse texture. They thicken the aqueous phase and modify the crystallization of ice

 

ICE CREAM QUALITY

Quality implies a clearly produced ice cream of acceptable flavor, taste, body and texture. The composition of the product and the ingredients used should be within the parameters and the limits set by the food laws. The desirable physical properties of ice cream should be defined mainly in terms of the texture as it is eaten. The consistency should be smooth and creamy and the air content should be finely distributed. There should be a quick melting effect on the palette, without greasiness or gumminess and with no gritty icy sensation. As the ice cream warms up, it should have a tendency to retain its shape, and as it melts, a creamy and not a watery serum should be formed. Flavor acceptability is governed by the quality of the ingredients that are used as well. Fruits, nuts, chocolate as well as the added flavors should be of a good quality. However, the basic flavor must come from high quality of milk and cream.

 

ICE CREAM – THE CHILLING TRUTH

Ice cream, Sumptuous…….., Luscious………………., Creamy…………. Ice cream!!!

Now that summer is almost here, it is time for scoops of it. But, have you ever considered what gives that delightful taste to a snowy vanilla ice cream? The real extract of orchids??? Forget it!!! The genuine vanilla that is obtained from the variety of orchids, almost never reaches the ice cream manufacturer. Instead, a synthetic substance called vanillin makes its way into the creamy stuff.Vanallin comes much cheaper than vanilla. If a small amount of vanilla can flavor two cups of ice cream, then the same amount of vanillin can flavor 500 cups. So why should’nt the manufacturer use the cheaper stuff…the customer would never know!!!! The substitute tastes like the real thing, but it is far from harmless!  This is largely because there is very little accountability for the manufacturers.  Even in the US, the food and drug administration (FDA) has not forced icecream manufacturers to name all the ingredients on the labels of their products.  All you get is the brand name, the Company’s name and the flavour.  The small print merely says, ‘only permitted colours and flavours used.  But what flavours and what colours?  Icecream companies here and abroad are given carte blanche to use additives.  Not surprisingly, neutralisers, stabilisers, emulsifiers, buffers, anti-oxidants, surfactants, bactericidals, synthetic colours and artificial flavours – all find their way into the gooey stuff.  In 1942 the FDA had banned the use of many additives because their safety had not been verified.  But oddly enough, again in 1960, it sanctioned the use of these chemicals – although there was still no proof of their safety.  The fact is that surfactants, which reduce the surface tension and are wetting agents, are chemicals similar to detergents.  And most emulsifiers are polyoxyethylene based and have caused cancer in experimental animals.  Most germicidals, anti-freeze agents and pain removers contain propylene glycol alginate – so does icecream.  Why then are these products used?  Animals given even minute quantities of propylene glycol alginate developed diarrhoea and some of them even died. 

Artificial flavours are harmful too, besides vanillin another substitute for vanilla is piperonal, which is a lice killer.  Chocolate icecream contains aldehyde C 18, amylphenyl acetate, n-butyl, phenyl, veratraldehyde, and other such tongue twisters... All, strong chemicals you wouldn’t like to touch, leave alone eat.  Rare are the manufacturers who use real fruit like strawberries.  More usually, artificial flavours are employed.  Pineapple icecream is often flavoured with ethylacetate, which is a cleaning agent for leather and textiles and whose vapours cause damage to the heart, liver and lungs.  Banana icecream scarcely contains banana, but an artificial flavour – amyl acetate – which is actually a solvent for oil paint.  Now you wouldn’t let your kids come anywhere near that.

In the west, there are thousands of synthetic colourings which are usually coal tar dyes proven to be carcinogenic.  Worse, most Indian icecreams are violently coloured to suit our flashy tastes, which just means a whole lot of colour.  It’s time the government stopped being complacent about a food product that is downed by tons every day.   On the positive front, Indian icecreams are believed to be more wholesome and natural and not so thoroughly soaked in synthetic additives as in the West.  Even then icecream companies should be made to mention all ingredients by name on their labels, plus the date of manufacture and expected shelf life.

Accountability is the only solution when it concerns the health of millions.

                      CAKE FORMULA BALANCING

What is a CAKE FORMULA?

It is an accurate record of the quantities of the raw materials necessary to make a particular type of cake. In other words………..it is an accurate recipe. If the recipe is correct, it will produce a good cake. As important as the recipe is the correct temperature, time and packing of the product. A good cake is one showing no faults, either in appearance, texture or while eating. It should be of good flavor and aroma and if it contains fruits, they must be evenly distributed. Bakery being the science that it is, we refer to the recipe as a formula. In the bakery, the range of ingredients that are used and which are essential is limited. There is Flour, Fat, Sweetening and Moistening. Each of these has a specific role to play and must be in Balance with each other.

What is BALANCE?

The ingredients that are used in cake making are divided according to their functions:

The Tougheners – these are the ingredients that provide structure and form and give shape to the product. These will include flour and egg. The starch in the flour gelatinizes and the protein in the egg coagulates during baking and gives shape to the cake.

The Softeners – these are the ingredients that soften the texture of the cake and include sugar and fat and milk. This softens the texture of cake and makes it different from that of bread, which contains basically the same ingredients but in a different proportion.

The Moisteners – these ingredients like milk, egg and liquid sweeteners like golden syrup provide the moistening effect in the batter and adjust the consistency.

The Driers – are those ingredients, which absorb the excess moisture in the batter and include flour, milk powder, cocoa powder.

The problem in Balancing is that certain ingredients perform more than one function. Eggs provide toughening but are also a moistening agent. Milk is a moistening agent, but milk powder is a drier!!!! The aim of formula balancing is to balance the moisteners with the driers and the tougheners with the softeners. A simple sponge recipe may be in perfect balance, but when converted into a chocolate cake, the addition of cocoa powder in the recipe will mean additional driers so the corresponding moistening (addition of milk) will have to be increased as well.

There are three simple rules that govern Formula Balancing:

-        the weight of the fat should not exceed the egg

-        the weight of the fat should not exceed the sugar

-        the weight of the sugar should not exceed the total liquid

The Effect of Sugar

Sugar sweetens. It also has the power to lift and lighten the cake and to give the crust its color. It improves the taste and the flavour of the cake as well as the keeping quality and it adds to its nutritive value. The extra sugar in a recioe will result in the M Fault, when the extra sugar has lifted the batter to such an extent that the protein-starch structure can no longer hold up the cake and collapses. Excess sugar will result in spots on the crust and the crumb will be sticky (excess moisture). On the other hand, if the batter is made with less sugar, it will have a decreased volume with a peaked surface. The crumb will be dry and harsh. The peaked top is the result of the lack of softening action of the sugar on the gluten, which in turn will have greater resistance to expansion resulting in a peaked top.

The Effect of Fat

Fat imparts a rich and pleasant eating quality to the cake and increases the food value. Butter adds flavor and improves the quality of the cake. Because of its shortening property, fat/butter also prevents toughness. It holds the air that is incorporated in the initial process of creaming. To much fat in a recipe will result in a cake of poor vol; Ume. The top crust will be thick and greasy. An increase in fat must be balanced by an increase in the toughners (structural material) like flour and egg. Less fat will make the caske tough, the volume will be poor and the crumb structure will show tunnel like holes pointing to the centre of the crown of the cake.

The Effect of Baking Powder

Baking Powder is used for aeration, thus increasing the volume of the cake. Some recipes do not use baking powder and the aeration is provided by mechanical means like creaming or beating (of eggs) or by sieving. Excess baking powder will produce the same effect as an excess of sugar will produce. The only difference is that there is a generation of gas beyond that which the flour and egg can take, with the result, the cake collapses. The crust of the cake is darker than normal and the crumb is open and is discolored especially near the base of the cake. Less baking powder will produce a cake of poor volume.

Common Problems/Faults in Cakes

1.     Cakes rise and fall during baking: An unbalanced formula is commonly responsible for this condition. Too much liquid or sugar will weaken the structure. Less flour or weak flour will not produce the structure required to support the leavening action. An excess of baking powder will produce excess gas that will weaken the structure and cause collapse. Too much aeration caused by over beating will also stretch the cell structure causing it to weaken. Excess fat may overburden the flour and egg structure causing the cake to rise initially and then collapse. Also, if during baking, the cake in the oven is shifted about before the it is fully set, it will tend to fall back.

2.     Cakes sink after baking: Cakes that are rich in sugar and fat but not supported by sufficient flour and egg will tend to sink after baking. Excess moisture in the in the cake may cause shrinkage. Too rapid cooling of freshly baked cakes can also cause shrinkage.

3.     Cakes have Peaks: Peaks are often caused by too strong flour. A high gluten content will ause the batter to become stringy and binding. Lack of liquid results in a firmer batter that does not expand evenly and peaks are formed from the forced breakthrough of the expanding gas and steam.

4.     Fruits sink to the Bottom of the Cake: A moderately strong flour must be used to make fruit cakes. There should be sufficient amount of gluten developed to hold the fruits in suspension. Some amount of extra gluten can be developed by mixing the batter well, after the addition of the flour. This will provide a structure that is strong enough to hold the fruits and the nuts. Weak flour will allow the fruits to sink to the bottom as the fat melts and liquifies and sugars are in a syrup form. Also, large pieces of fruits will settle as they are too large to be supported. Fruits, which come in sugar syrup, must be drained properly. Excess liquid will act like a lubricant and allow the fruits to move rapidly through the batter during the baking process.

5.     Cakes crumble when sliced: An open grain and a weak structure are the primary cause for cakes getting crumbly. It may be due to over creaming, excess shortening or sugar or even improper mixing. A weak structure is caused because of a weak flour or lack of the flour – egg combination. An excess of sugar creates a very open grain that will not hold the fruits. Fruits that are not soaked and are dry will absorb the moisture and make the cake crumble.

 

                    PASTRY

Various types of pastries are used in the preparation of sweet and savory dishes in the bakery and confectionery. These include:

 

1.     Short crust pastry

2.     Flaky pastry

3.     Puff pastry

4.     Danish pastry

5.     Choux pastry

6.     Rough puff pastry

7.     Hot water pastry

SHORT CRUST PASTRY

Short crust pastry is a mixture of flour, fat, sugar and sometimes egg and milk. The flour should have low gluten content, one that is milled from soft wheat flour. The fat will reduce the extensibility of the gluten that is it makes the gluten strands shorter….hence the term shortening for the fat used in the bakery and the term short crust pastry. The usual method of making short crust pastry is by the rub-in method. Chilled fat or butter is rubbed into the sieved flour so that it is finely dispersed and resembles a sandy or bread crumb like texture. The fat forms a thin layer or coating on the glutenin and gliadin molecules, without turning the fat into a continuous paste. Cold water is sprinkled over the mixture to form smooth dough. The ratio of fat to flour is normally 1:2, but the fat can be increased to equal the flour to obtain a rich dough. This dough would be very difficult but not impossible, to work with. Pate Sucre is a sweet version of this pastry and sugar is creamed with butter before the flour and the moisture is added. The ratio of sugar fat and flour is 1:2:4. Various sweet and savoury products are made with short crust pastry. It forms the base of several pies, tarts, flans and also products like cheese straws and turnovers. Few precautions must be taken when making short crust pastry. It is important not to work the dough too much as it will get tough due to the development of gluten. This can also happen when scrapings and trimmings are added to the dough and re worked. The use of too much flour for dusting will also alter the ratio of the mixture and cause toughening as the extra flour proteins – glutenin and gliadin -  does not have a coating of fat around it, and thus come together to form gluten.

 

Some faults in Short Crust Pastry

 

-        Hard or tough pastry is due to too much liquid or too little fat. It is also probably due to over mixing.

-        A soft and crumbly pastry is due to too little water for the binding, too much fat or the use of self raising flour instead of plain flour.

-        A shrunken pastry is due to excess stretching during rolling.

-        A soggy pastry is the result of the filling in the product being too moist.

LAMINATED PASTRY

This category of pastry includes Puff, Flaky, Rough Puff and Danish Pastry.

 

Puff and Flaky are two of the most remarkable products of the Bake Shop. Although they are similar products, they are made differently and it is almost impossible to tell which is. Puff is referred to as the French method whereas the English refer to it as Flaky pastry. The Scots have their own version and call it Rough Puff Pastry. The flour used for laminated pastry must be of high gluten content so that it will stand up to the manipulation involved in building up the laminated structure. Butter is the preferred fat because of its flavour and melt in the mouth quality. Special pastry margarine is also available. It has a low moisture content and good creaming value…ideal for this kind of pastry. This product is easy to work with as it does not get too hard in the refrigerator. A weak acid solution such as lemon juice or cream of tartar is added to the dough, as it will confer greater extensibility to the gluten.

Puff pastry has equal amounts of fat and flour. A dough is made with flour, salt, and the lemon juice. After allowing it to rest, the dough is rolled out into a square and the creamed block of fat is placed in the centre. The dough is then folded around the fat and it is refrigerated for a while. The dough is then rolled into a rectangle about ½ “thick. Fold the two ends to the centre and then into half (book fold). Make sure that the edges /corners are even. Refrigerate/rest the dough to relax the gluten. Do not refrigerate for too long as the fat will harden. Now turn the dough 90° on the table so that the length now becomes the breadth. This step must be repeated before subsequent rollings so that it helps to stretch the gluten in all directions, not just lengthwise. Failure to do this will result in the product that shrinks unevenly when they are baked. Repeat the rolling and folding a total of four times. The dough is now ready to be rolled out for the final shaping and cutting.

 

Flaky pastry is a similar product. The dough is similar but the amount of fat is only 2/3 that of the flour. The fat is creamed into a homogenous mass and divided into three parts. The dough is rolled out into a rectangle about ½ “thick. One third of the fat is then spread onto 2/3^rd of the dough surface. The dough is then folded into three so that there are alternate layers of fat and dough. The dough is then rested/refrigerated to relax the gluten. The process is repeated twice more to use up all the fat and then once again without fat (blind fold). Remember to rest the dough between each rolling. The pastry is now ready for the final make up.

 

Khari biscuits, vol-au-vents, cream horns, cheese straws, meat and vegetable puffs are some of the sweet and savory products made with puff and flaky pastry.

 

Rough Puff pastry is the Scottish answer to Puff and Flaky pastry. This is the quickest method of making a laminated pastry. Old books describe it as the Blitz method, the term being derived from the German Blitzen. Meaning lightening.  In this method, the fat is mixed into the sieved flour in pieces, the size of walnuts. A dough is made using water and a little lemon juice, without using too much pressure so that the fat does not completely blend into the dough. The dough is then rolled out like the Flaky pastry method and the process is repeated two more times. The dough is now ready for rolling cutting into the desired shape.

 

When laminated pastries are baked, the fat melts and forms oil layers between the layers of dough, preventing them from sticking to each other. As the heat penetrates into the product, the water in the dough layers changes into steam and pushes the lubricated leaves of dough apart. This produces an increase in the volume of the dough. Later, the gluten in the flour coagulates while the water is dried out so that by the time the pastry is properly cooked, it is able to retain its distended puffy volume. The temperature of the oven has an important role to play in the success of this product. The temperature must be hot enough to generate the steam required.

 

Danish pastry is a rich, sweet and fermented dough. The fat is laminated into the dough and therefore, Danish is also considered a laminated pastry. A ferment of yeast, sugar, eggs and milk is added to the flour to make a soft dough. After resting and knocking back the dough, it is then rolled into a rectangle and the fat spread evenly. The dough is then cut into three uneven sizes and a spool is made….that is….rolling the smallest into the medium and then that into the largest piece of dough. The dough is wrapped into a moist cloth and refrigerated for 15-20 minutes. It is then rolled and cut into the desired shapes. Egg wash is applied and the product is allowed the second prooving and then is baked at 200°C for 20 minutes. The pastry is brushed with sugar syrup after baking.

Croissants, windmills, turnovers, napoleons, and breakfast Danish are products.

 

CHOUX PASTRY

The French term for this pastry Pate a choux literally means cabbage paste, because the profiteroles and cream puffs made from this pastry resemble little cabbages. These are hollow shells which have a crisp and brittle texture. They are then filled with a variety of fillings both sweet and savoury – including creamed cheese, fresh cream, crème patissiere, fish, and meat pate. Water, butter and salt are boiled together and then the flour is added in to form a partly gelatinised paste. It is mixed vigorously with a wooden spoon and then cooked once more till the mixture has a shiny appearance and leaves the sides of the pan. Beaten eggs are added gradually to the paste, beating continously to form a smooth pliable and piping consistency mass. It is then piped into the desired shapes – rosettes, fingers or balls. Choux paste is baked at 200°C so as to achieve maximum rise. The temperature is then reduced to 150C to dry out the shells and to obtain the crisp and brittle texture. During the baking, the products should not be subjected to unnecessary movements, otherwise the structure will collapse. Shells can be stored in airtight containers and used as and when required. Eclairs, Cream Puffs, Duchesses, profiteroles and cream puffs are all choux pastry based items.

 

HOT WATER PASTRY

This is also known as the cooked pastry and is seldom used these days. It is a lean dough made by cooking the flour, salt and a little fat in water to a paste. This paste is then used to line the sides of pie tins, using the hands to apply the mixture, the filling was then placed inside the tin and then covered with more of the paste. After baking, the dough was often discarded and it was more like a protective layer over the filling. Welsh miners oven carried their food wrapped in this pastry to work. At lunch time, the pastry was broken open and the filling- meat or fish - was consumed. Cornish Pasties, a traditional Welsh favorite was originally made with Hot Water Pastry.

                    BISCUITS AND COOKIES

The name biscuit comes from the French word bis, which means twice and cuit which means baked. It is a sweet or savory dry flat cake with a high calorie content (420-510 / 100 gm) The raw materials used for biscuit manufacture is flour, sweeteners, shortening, milk, leavening agents and other miscellaneous products.

Cookies were at one time referred to as small cakes or sweet biscuits. The Dutch have provided bakers and confectioners with the word kocke which means small cake. The Americans began to use the word cookie, whereas the English continue to use the word biscuit for the same product. There are more varieties of cookies than any other baked product because there are so many different shapes, sizes, textures and flavors that are possible.

CLASSIFICATION OF COOKIES/BISCUITS

Cookies can be formed by dropping, rolling, cutting out, moulding and pressing. Cookies are usually classified according to the way in which the dough is shaped:

 

1.     bars and squares

2.     drop cookies

3.     rolled cookies

4.     pressed cookies

5.     moulded or shaped cookies

6.     refrigerator cookies

7.     bag cookies (piped)

 

Bar and drop cookies are made with soft dough that has a comparatively high percentage of liquid. The other varieties call for a stiff dough, usually less sweet and often higher in fart content than soft dough.

MIXING METHODS

 Cookie mixing methods are similar to cake mixing methods. Major difference is that less liquid is incorporated, therefore less gluten. The methods of mixing are:

a.      One stage

b.     Creaming

c.      Sponge

 

One Stage method: All the ingredients are mixed at once. Here the baker has less control over the mixing.

Creaming method: This is identical to the creaming method for cakes.  The amount of creaming affects the texture of the cookies, the leavening and the spread, hence only a small amount of creaming is desirable.

Sponge method: This is similar to the egg foam method for cakes. The only batter is delicate. Precaution that one has to take is to keep the batches small because the

MAKE UP METHODS

Because their mixing is simple, it is better to classify cookies and biscuits according to their makeup.

 

Bagged:  Also, called pressed cookies are made from soft dough. The dough must be soft enough to be forced through a pastry (piping) bag, but stiff enough to hold its shape. E.g.: Butter Buttons

 

Dropped: these cookies are made from soft dough. In this method, the batter is deposited on a sheet for baking with a spoon or a scoop. When the dough contains pieces of nuts, dried fruits or chocolate bits or chips, this method is used. Also, when you want the cookie to have a rough homemade look. E.g.: peanut macaroons.

 

Rolled: Cookies are rolled and then cut with cutters. Bakeshops and 5 star operations do not make these type of cookies because of the labour involved. Also, after cutting the scraps, these are re rolled, making tough and inferior cookies. The only advantage is that you can make different shapes and sizes. E.g.: Tricolor biscuits

 

Moulded : In this method, each piece of dough is moulded into the desired shape. This usually involves flattening the piece out with a weight. (stamp the design) e.g.: Shrewsbury Biscuits (from Kayani, Pune).

 

Icebox: Also called refrigerated cookies. This method is ideal for operations that wish to have freshly baked cookies on hand at all times. Rolls of dough are made in advance and kept in the fridge.  They are then cut and baked as needed. This method is also used to make multi colored cookies in various designs. E.g.: chequered and pinwheel.

 

Bar: Here the dough is baked in long narrow strips which are then cut cross wise into bars.

 

Sheet: This make up is like the sheet cakes….only denser and richer.

 

No matter what method is used, one important rule to follow is – the cookie should have a uniform size and thickness. This is essential for even baking. If the cookies are to be garnished, they must be done immediately on panning. Press them gently when still fresh. If you wait, the surface dries up.

PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE WHILE MAKING COOKIES/BISCUITS

 

1.     A major precaution to be observed while making cookie mixture is that they should be quickly mixed and never over processed.

2.     For hard to handle soft doughs, roll the dough directly on to the baking sheet. Cut into the desired shapes and remove the scraps from around.

3.     If cookies should stick to the pan, put the pan back into the oven for a few seconds. This usually loosens the cookies easily.

 

Cookies may be iced, sandwiched with filling or dusted with confectioners sugar. They make a excellent finger food dessert or can be used as a garnish for a dessert. Cookies are one of the most profitable items produced by the baker. An important factor in the production is the use of high grade ingredients. Butter is the preferred shortening. It has a better flavor and a melt in the mouth quality. Careful selection of the purest spices, extracts and flavorings will assure delicious cookies. The type of flour used for cookies can vary from flours of medium strength to soft texture. Strong flours are not recommended for making cookies.

COOKIES AND BISCUIT FAULTS

 

1. Lack of spread.

a.      Too fine granulation of sugar

b.     Adding sugar at one time

c.      Excessive mixing

d.     Too hot oven temperature

e.      Too much of acidity in the dough

 

2. Excess of spread

a.      Excessive sugar

b.     Too soft a batter consistency

c.      Excessive pan grease

d.     Too low an oven temperature

e.       Excessive or improper type of shortening

 

3. Tough cookies

a.      Insufficient shortening

b.     Flour too strong

c.      Over handling

 

4. Sticking to pans

a.      Too soft a dough

b.     Excessive egg content

c.      Unclean pans

 

5. Black spots and harsh crumbs

a.      Excessive ammonia

Sometimes we want some cookies to be crisp, others to be soft, some to hold their shape and others to spread. In order to produce characteristics we want, and to correct faults, it is useful to know what causes these basic traits.

 

Crispness: Cookies are crisp if they are low in moisture.

-        Low proportion of liquid in the mixture, so stiff dough

-        High sugar and fat content

-        Baking long enough to reduce moisture

-        Small sizes or thin shapes

-        Proper storage

Softness: This texture is the opposite of crispness

-        High proportion of liquid

-        Low sugar and fat

-        Use of honey and molasses

-        short baking times

-        Large size or thick shapes.

-        Proper storage

 

Chewiness:  Moisture is necessary for chewiness

-        High sugar and liquid content

-        High proportion of egg

-        Strong flour

 

Spread:  This feature is desirable in some varieties of cookies while others must hold their shape

-        High sugar content increases the spread. Coarse sugar increases the spread while fine sugar reduces spread.

-        Baking soda and ammonia increases spread

-        Creaming fat and sugar contributes to leavening by incorporating air and therefore increases spread. Just blending fat and sugar to a paste reduces spread.

-        Low temperature increases spread

-        Excess liquid (slack batter) will increase the spread

-        Strong flour decreases spread

-        Spread is more on a heavily greased tray.

 

                          BASIC BAKERY TERMS

 

Allumette                    French word for 'matchstick'. Various puff pastry items made in thin sticks or strips.

 

Almond Paste             A mixture of finely ground almonds and sugar.

 

Angel Food Cake        A type of cake made with meringue (egg white and sugar) and flour.

 

Angel food Method    A cake mixing method involving folding a mixture of flour and sugar onto a meringue.

 

Baba                            A type of yeast cake that is soaked in syrup.

 

Babka                          A type of sweet yeast bread or coffee cake.

 

Baked Alaska              A dessert consisting of ice cream on a sponge base, covered with meringue and browned in the oven.

 

Baking Ammonia       A leavening agent that releases ammonia gas and carbon dioxide.

 

Baklava                       A Greek or Middle Eastern dessert made of nuts and phyllo dough and soaked in syrup.

 

Batter                          A semi-liquid mixture containing four or other starch, used for the production of cakes and breads, and for coating products to be deep-fried.

 

Bavarian Cream          A light cold dessert made of gelatin, whipped cream, and custard sauce or fruit.

 

Beignet Soufflé          A type of fritter made with éclair paste, which puffs up greatly when fried.

 

Black Forest Torte      A chocolate sponge layer cake filled with whipped cream and cherries.

 

Blanc Mange              1) An English pudding made with milk, sugar and cornstarch. 2) A French dessert made of milk, cream, almonds and gelatin.

 

Bloom                         A whitish coating on chocolate, caused by separated cocoa butter.

 

Blown Sugar               Pulled sugar that is made into thin walled, hollow shapes by being blown up like a balloon.

 

Bombe                        A type of frozen dessert made in a dome shaped mold.

 

Boston Cream Pie       A sponge cake or other yellow cake filled with pastry cream and topped with chocolate fondant or confectioners' sugar.

 

Bran                            The hard outer covering of kernels of wheat and other grain.

 

Bran Flour                  Flour to which bran flakes have been added.

 

Bread Flour                 Strong flour, such as patent flour, used for breads.

 

Brioche                       Rich yeast dough containing large amounts of eggs and butter, or a product made from this dough.

 

Brown Sugar               Regular granulated sucrose containing various impurities that give it a distinctive flavor.

 

Buttercream                An icing made of butter and/or shortening blended with confectioners' sugar or sugar syrup a and sometimes other ingredients.

 

Cabinet Pudding         A baked custard containing sponge cake and fruits.

 

Cake Flour                  A fine, white flour made from soft wheat.

 

Caramelization           The browning of sugar caused by heat.

 

Cassata                        An Italian style bombe, usually with three layers of different ice-creams, plus a filling of Italian meringue.

 

Cast Sugar                  Sugar that is boiled to hard crack stage and than poured into molds to harden.

 

Celsius Scale              The metric system of temperature measurement, with 0°C set at the freezing point of water and 100°C set at the boiling point of water.

 

Charlotte                     1) A cold dessert made of Bavarian cream or other cream in a special mold usually lined with ladyfingers or other sponge product. 2) A hot dessert made of cooked fruit and baked in a special mold lined with strips of bread.

 

Chemical Leavener    A leavener such as baking soda, baking powder or baking ammonia, which releases gases produced by chemical reactions.

 

Chiffon Cake              A light cake made by the chiffon method.

 

Chiffon Method          A cake mixing method involving the folding of egg whites into a batter made of flour, egg yolks and oil.

 

Chiffon Pie                 A pie with a light fluffy filling containing egg whites and usually gelatin.

 

Chocolate Liquor        Unsweetened chocolate, consisting of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

 

Christmas Pudding     A dark, heavy steamed pudding made of dried and candied fruits, spices, beef suet and crumbs.

Clear Flour                 A tan colored wheat flour made from the outer portion of the endosperm.

 

Coagulation                The process by which proteins become firm, usually when heated.

 

Cobbler                       A fruit dessert similar to a pie but without a bottom.

 

Cocoa                          The dry powder that remains after cocoa butter is pressed out of the chocolate liquor.

 

Cocoa Butter               A white or yellowish fat found in natural chocolate.

 

Compote                     Fruit cooked in sugar syrup.

 

Confectioners'            Sucrose that is ground to a fine powder and mixed with

Sugar                           a little cornstarch to prevent caking.

 

Coupe                          A dessert consisting of one or two scoops of ice-cream or sherbet, placed in a glass and topped with any number of syrups, fruits and garnishes - a sundae.

Couverture                  Natural, sweet chocolate containing no added fats other than natural cocoa butter; used for dipping, molding, coating and similar purposes.

 

Creaming                    The process of beating fat and sugar to blend them uniformly and to incorporate air.

 

Cream Pie                   An unbaked pie containing a pastry cream type filling.

 

Cream Pudding           A boiled pudding made of milk, sugar, starch and eggs.

 

Crème Anglaise          A light vanilla flavored custard sauce made of milk, sugar and egg yolks.

 

Crème Caramel          A custard baked in a mold lined with caramelized sugar and then de-molded.

 

Crêpe                          A very thin pancake often served rolled around a filling.

 

Crêpes Suzette            French pancakes served in a sweet sauce flavored with oranges.

 

Croissant                     A flaky, buttery, yeast roll shaped like a crescent and made from a rolled in dough.

 

Custard                       A liquid that is thickened or set by the coagulation of egg protein.

 

Dessert Syrup             A flavored syrup used to flavor and moisten cakes and desserts.

 

Devil's Food Cake      A chocolate cake made with a high percentage of baking soda, which gives the cake a reddish tint.

Diastase                      Various enzymes, found in flour and in malt that convert starch into sugars.

 

Disaccharide               A complex or double sugar such as sucrose.

 

Dobos Torte                A Hungarian cake made of seven thin layers filled with chocolate buttercream and topped with caramelized sugar.

 

Docking                      Piercing or perforating pastry dough before baking in order to allow steam to escape and to avoid blistering.

 

Drained weight           The weight of solid canned fruit after draining off the juice.

 

Dredge                        To sprinkle thoroughly with sugar or some other dry powder.

 

Drop Batter                 A batter that is too thick to pour but will drop from a spoon in lumps.

 

Dutch Process             Cocoa processed with an alkali to reduce its acidity.

Cocoa                         

 

Éclair Paste                 A paste or dough made of boiling water or milk, butter, flour and eggs; used to make éclairs, cream puffs and similar products.

 

Emulsion                    A mixture of two or more unmixable substances.

 

Endosperm                  The starchy inner portion of grain kernels.

 

Extraction                   The portion of the grain kernel that is separated into a particular grade of flour.

 

Fermentation              The process by which yeast changes carbohydrates into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.

 

Foaming                      The process of whipping air, with or without sugar, to incorporate air.

 

Fondant                       A type of icing made of boiled sugar syrup that is agitated so that it crystallizes into a mass of extremely small white crystals.

 

Frangipane                  A type of almond flavored cream.

 

French Pastry              A variety of small fancy cakes and other pastries, usually in single portion size.

 

French Style               Ice-cream containing egg yolks.

Ice-Cream                  

 

Fritter                          A deep fried item made of or coated with a batter or a dough.

 

Frozen Mousse           A still frozen dessert containing whipped cream.

Ganache                      A rich cream made of sweet chocolate and heavy cream.

 

Gâteau                         French word for 'cake'.

 

Gaufre                         French word for 'waffle'.

 

Gelatinization             The process by which starch granules absorb water and swell in size.

 

Genoise                       A sponge cake made with a batter containing melted butter.

 

Germ                           The plant embryo portion of a grain kernel.

 

Glacé                           1) Glazed; coated with icing. 2) Frozen.

 

Glaze                           1) A shiny coating, such as syrup, applied to a food. 2) To make a food shiny or glossy by coating it with a glaze or by browning it under a broiler or in a hot oven.

 

Gliadin                        A protein in wheat flours that combines with another protein glutenin to form gluten.

 

Gluten                         An elastic substance, formed from proteins present in wheat flours, that give structure and strength to baked goods.

 

Gram                           The basic unit of weight in the metric system; equal to about one-thirtieth of an ounce.

 

Granité                        A coarse, crystalline frozen dessert made of water, sugar and fruit juice or another flavoring.

 

Gum Paste                  A type of sugar paste or pastillage made with vegetable gum.

 

Hard Sauce                 A flavored mixture of confectioner's sugar and butter; often served with steamed puddings.

 

Hard Wheat                Wheat high in protein.

 

Hearth Bread              A bread that is baked directly on the bottom of the oven, not in a pan.

 

High Ratio                  1) Term referring to cakes and cake formulas mixed by a special method and containing more sugar than flour. 2) The mixing method used for these cakes. 3) Term referring to certain specially formulated ingredients used in these cakes, such as shortening.

 

Homogenized Milk    Milk that has been processed so that the cream does not separate out.

 

Hydrogenation            A process that converts liquid oils to solid fats (shortenings) by chemically bonding hydrogen to the fat molecules.

Ice                               A frozen dessert made of water, sugar and fruit juice.

 

Ice Cream                   A churn-frozen mixture of milk, cream, sugar, flavorings, and sometimes eggs.

 

Icing Combs               A plastic triangle with toothed or serrated edges; used for texturing icings.

 

Inversion                     A chemical process in which a double sugar splits in two simple sugars.

 

Invert sugar                 A mixture of two simple sugars, dextrose and levulose, resulting from the breakdown of sucrose.

 

Italian Meringue         A meringue made by whipping boiling syrup into egg whites.

 

Japonaise                    A baked meringue flavored with nuts.

 

Kernel Paste               A nut paste, similar to almond paste, made of apricot kernels and sugar.

 

Kilo                             Prefix in the metric system meaning "one thousand."

 

Kirsch                         A clear alcoholic beverage distilled from cherries.

 

Kugelhopf                   A type of rich, sweet bread or coffeecake usually made in a tube type pan.

 

Ladyfinger                  A small, dry, finger-shaped sponge cake or cookie.

 

Langue-de-Chat          A thin, crisp cookie The French name means "cats tongue," referring to the shape of the cookie.

 

Lean Dough                A dough that is low in fat and sugar.

 

Leavening                   The production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and texture.

 

Linzertorte                  A tart made of raspberry jam and a short dough containing nuts and spices.

 

Liter                            The basic volume of unit in the metric system: equal to slightly more than a quart.

 

Macaroon                    A cookie made of eggs (usually whites) and almond paste or coconut.

 

Malt Syrup                  A type of syrup containing maltose sugar extracted from sprouted barley.

 

Marble                        To partly mix two colors of cake batter or icing so that the colors are in decorative swirls.

 

Marron                        French word for "chestnut."

 

Marshmallow             A light confection, icing, or filling made of meringue and gelatin (or other stabilizers).

 

Marzipan                    A paste or confection made of almonds and sugar and often used for decorative work.

 

Meal                            Coarsely ground grain.

 

Melba Sauce               A sweet sauce made of pureed raspberries and sometimes red currants.

 

Meringue                    A thick, white foam made of whipped eggs and sugar.

 

Meringue Chantilly  Baked meringue filled with whipped cream

 

Meringue Glacée        Baked meringue filled with ice cream.

 

Meter                          The basic unit of length in the metric system; slightly longer than one yard.

 

Milli                            Prefix in the metric system meaning "one thousandth."

 

Modeling Chocolate   A thick paste made of chocolate and glucose, which can be molded by hand into decorative shapes.

 

Molasses                     A heavy brown syrup made from sugar cane.

 

Monosaccharide         A simple or single sugar such as glucose and fructose.

 

Mousse                       A soft cream dessert that is made light by the addition of whipped cream, egg whites, or both.

 

Napoleon                    A desert made of layers of puff pastry filled with pastry cream.

 

Net Weight                 The weight of total contents of a can or package.

 

No-Time Dough         A bread dough made with a large quantity of yeast and given no fermentation time expect for a short rest after mixing.

 

Nougat                        A mixture of caramelized sugar and almonds or other nuts used in decorative work and as a confection and flavoring.

 

Old Dough                  A dough that is over-fermented.

 

One-Stage Method     A cookie mixing method in which all the ingredients are added to the bowl at once.

 

Othello                        A type of small (single-portion size), spherical sponge cake filled with cream and iced with fondant.

 

Oven Spring                The rapid rise of yeast goods in the oven due to the production and expansion of trapped gases caused by the oven heat.

 

Overrun                       The increase in volume of ice cream or frozen desserts due to the incorporation of air while freezing.

 

Pain d'Epice                A type of gingerbread. French, meaning spice bread.

 

Palmier                       A small pastry or petit four sec made of rolled sugared puff pastry. Cut into slices and baked.

 

Parfait                         1) A type of sundae served in a thin tall glass. 2) A still frozen dessert made of egg yolk, syrup and heavy cream.

 

Paris-Brest                  A dessert consisting of a ring of baked choux paste filled with cream.

 

Pasteurized                 Heat-treated to kill bacteria that might cause disease or spoilage.

 

Pastillage                    A sugar paste used for decorative work, which becomes very hard when dry.

 

Pastry Cream              A thick custard sauce containing eggs and starch.

 

Pastry Flour                A weak flour used for pastries and cookies.

 

Pâte à Choux               Éclair paste.

 

Pâte Feuilleté              French name for puff pastry.

 

Peel                             A flat wooden shovel used to place hearth breads in an oven and remove them.

 

Petit four                     A delicate cake or pastry small enough to be eaten in one or two bites.

 

Petit Four Glacé         An iced or cream filled petit four.

 

Petit Four sec              An un-iced or unfilled petit four such as a small butter cookie or palmier (sec means dry).

 

Philadelphia Style      Ice-cream containing no eggs.

Ice-cream

 

Phyllo                         A paper-thin dough or pastry used to make strudels and various Middle Eastern and Greek desserts.

 

Piping Jelly                 A transparent, sweet jelly used for decorating cakes.

 

Pithiviers                    A cake made of puff pastry filled with almond cream.

 

Pot de Crème              A rich baked custard.

 

Pour Batter                 A batter that is liquid enough to pour.

 

Praline                        A confection or flavoring made of nuts and caramelized sugar.

 

Press                           A scaled piece of dough that is divided into small, equal units in a dough divider.

 

Profiterole                  A small puff made of éclair paste. Often filled with ice cream and served with chocolate sauce.

 

Puff Pastry                  A very light, flaky pastry made from a rolled-in dough and leavened by steam.

 

Pulled Sugar               Sugar that is boiled to the hard-crack stage, allowed to harden slightly, then pulled or stretched until it develops a pearly sheen.

 

Pullman Loaf              A long, rectangular loaf of bread.

 

Pumpernickel Flour    A coarse, flaky meal made from whole rye grains.

 

Punching                     A method of expelling gases from fermented dough.

 

Puree                           A food made into a smooth pulp, usually by being ground or forced through a sieve.

 

Retarding                    Refrigerating a yeast dough to slow the fermentation.

 

Rice Condé                 A thick, molded rice pudding, usually topped with fruit.

 

Rice Imperatrice         A rich rice pudding containing whipped cream, candied fruits, and gelatin.

 

Rich Dough                 A dough high in fat, sugar, and/or eggs.

 

Rolled-in Dough         Dough in which a fat has been incorporated in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure.

 

Rounding                    A method of molding a piece of dough into a round ball with a smooth surface or skin.

 

Royal Icing                 A form of icing made of confectioners' sugar and egg whites; used for decorating.

 

Rye Blend                   A mixture of rye flour and hard wheat flour.

 

Sabayon                      A foamy dessert or sauce mad eof egg yolks whipped with wine or liqueur.

 

Sacristain                    A small pastry made of a twisted strip of puff pastry coated with nuts and sugar.

 

St. Honoré                   (1) A dessert made of a ring of cream puffs set on a short dough base and filled with a type of pastry cream (2) The cream used to fill this dessert, made of pastry cream and whipped cream and whipped egg whites.

 

Savarin                        A type of yeast bread or cake that is soaked in syrup.

 

Scaling                        Weighing, usually of ingredients, dough or batters.

 

Scone                          A type of biscuit or biscuit-like bread.

 

Scone Flour                A mixture of flour and baking powder that is used when very small quantities of baking powder are needed.

 

Sherbet                        A frozen dessert made of water, sugar, fruit juice and sometimes milk or cream.

 

Short                           Having a high fat content, which makes the product very crumbly and tender.

 

Shortbread                  A crisp cookie made of butter, sugar and flour.

 

Shortening                  1) Any fat used in baking to tenderize the product by shortening gluten strands. 2) A white, tasteless, solid fat that has been formulated for baking or deep-frying.

 

Simple Syrup              A syrup consisting of sucrose and water in varying proportions.

 

Soft Wheat                  Wheat low in protein.

 

Solid Pack                   A type of canned fruit or vegetable with no water added.

 

Sorbet                         French for sherbet.

Soufflé                        1) A baked dish containing whipped egg whites, which cause the dish to rise during baking. 2) A still frozen dessert made in a soufflé dish so that it resembles a baked soufflé.

Sourdough                  1) A yeast type dough made with a sponge or starter that has fermented so long that it has become very sour or acidic. 2) A bread made with such a dough.

Sponge                        A batter or dough of yeast, flour and water that is allowed to ferment and is then mixed with more flour and other ingredients to make a dough.

Sponge cake                A type of cake made by whipping eggs and sugar to a foam, then folding in flour.

Sponge method           A cake mixing method based on whipped eggs and sugar.

Spun Sugar                 Boiled sugar made into long, thin threads by dipping wires into the sugar syrup and waving them so that the sugar falls off and sets into fine strands.

Staling                        The change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to the loss of moisture by starch granules.

Stollen                        A type of sweet yeast bread made with fruit.

Straight flour              Flour made from the entire wheat kernel, minus the bran and germ.

Streusel                       A crumbly topping for baked goods, consisting of fat, sugar and flour rubbed together.

Strong Flour               Flour with a high protein.

Strudel                        1) A type of dough that is stretched until paper thin. 2) A baked item consisting of a filling rolled up in a sheet of phyllo or strudel dough.

Sucrose                       The chemical name for regular granulated sugar and confectioner's sugar.

Swiss Roll                   A thin sponge cake layer spread with a filling and rolled up

Syrup Pack                  A type of canned fruit containing sugar syrup.

Tempering                  The process of melting and cooling chocolate to specific temperatures in order to prepare it for dipping, coating or molding.

Torte                           German word for various types of cakes, usually layered cakes.

Tunneling                   A condition of muffin products characterized by large, elongated holes; caused by over-mixing.

Turntable                    A pedestal with a flat, rotating top, used for holding cakes while they are being decorated.

Two-Stage Method     A cake mixing method, beginning with the blending of flour and high-ratio shortening, followed by the addition of liquids. Also called the high-ratio method.

Vacherin                     A crisp meringue shell filled with cream, fruits or other items.

Wash                           1) A liquid brushed onto the surface of a product, usually before baking.  2) To apply such a liquid.

Water Pack                 A type of canned fruit or vegetable containing the water used to process the item.

Weak Flour                 Flour with a low protein content.

Whole Wheat Flour    Flour made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including bran and germ.

Young Dough             A dough that is under-fermented.

Zabaglione                  An Italian dessert or sauce made of whipped yolks and Marsala wine.

Zest                             The outer colored portion of the peel of citrus

            BAKERY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

 

1. What do you understand by he term syneresis in relation to bread?

 

Syneresis is the term given to a physical change that takes place in starch, gels etc, as they age. It is this change that brings about the staling of bread that is a day or two old, a sensation suggesting that bread contains less moisture. This change in starch is known as syneresis. It is affected by conditions of humidity and temperature in which bread is stored.

 

2.        Why is salt used in bread making?

 

Salt is used because:

-        of its beneficial influence on flavor

-        it strengthens and stabilises the gluten, thus giving bulk to the bread.

-        it controls and prevents the excessive action of yeast

-        it hampers the growth of harmful bacteria, which would spoil the flavor of the bread.

 

3. Why is bread knocked back once, sometimes twice during fermentation?

 

When dough is knocked back (punched), a fresh supply of oxygen is given to the yeast, enabling it to work more vigorously and the excess of carbon di oxide is expelled. Also, during knocking back, the films of gluten are sub divided and therefore more evenly distributed. It also helps to relax the strained strands of gluten and this improves the texture of the bread.

 

4. Why is dough covered with a wet cloth during the period of resting?

 

The temperature of the dough is usually higher than the air surrounding it. The wet cloth helps to steady the temperature and thereby stabilise the fermentation. If left uncovered, the dough will warm the air that immediately surrounds it, causing it to expand and rise. A fresh current of air replaces it and this air will cause the surface of the dough to dry and form a skin. This skin, when mixed into the dough will cause ugly patches and will form cores, which are hard pellets of uncooked dough that is sometimes found in bread.

 

 

 

 

5.            Why should all the materials used in cake making be approximately the same temperature?

 

By keeping all the materials at similar temperatures better aeration and easier, better and more thorough amalgamation is affected. Consequently, cakes will have a better appearance, volume and texture. Batters made with ingredients of varying temperatures become tough and undersized.

 

6.            Why do cake batters sometimes ‘curdle’?

 

Cake batters curdle when fat separate from the water in the mixture and breaks the emulsion. It can occur due to:

 

-        hasty preparation and quick addition of the eggs

-        hard fat being used

-        too many eggs being used

-        high moisture content in the fat

 

7.            Why do cakes sometimes sink in the center?

 

Cakes tend to sink in the middle because:

-        too much handling during the baking

-        too much baking powder is used.

-        If too much fat and sugar is used (in relation to the flour)

-        If the cake is removed from the oven before it is cooked (center is in a liquid or semi liquid state)

 

8.             Why do the fruit in a fruit cake tend to sink to the bottom?

 

To prevent fruit (dry) from sinking, make sure they are dry (often, fruit like cherries are soaked in sugar syrup) Moisture makes the fruit heavy and cause them to sink to the bottom. Coat the fruit with a sprinkling of flour before adding them to the batter. This flour will absorb the excess moisture. Fruits could also sink if the batter is too light to support the fruit during the baking. Over beating of the butter and sugar or the eggs cause excess air to be incorporated thus making the batter light. One more reason is the type of flour used. Harder flours are ideal for fruit cake, as the extra gluten formed will be able to hold the fruit in place. Sufficient gluten can also be developed for this purpose by working the batter after the flour has been added.

 

9.            What happens to cake batters when put into the oven?

 

As soon as the oven door closed on the cake, the heat commences to melt the fat from the outside of the cake towards the inside. The raising agent produces carbon di oxide. As the temperature of the batter increases, some other starch cells begin to gelatinize. A skin forms on the top (due to the evaporation of moisture from the surface) and begins to color rapidly due to the caramelization of the sugar. The batter now begins to rise. The egg coagulates and begins to get firm. Gluten strands are strengthened. The entire product gets cooked to a firm sponge. To check whether the cake is cooked, the following tests can be done:

 

-        press the top center lightly and if it springs back, it is done

-        insert a cake tester, wooden skewer or a small knife in the center of the cake and if it comes out clean, it is done.

-        If the cake begins to leave the sides of the pan, it indicates doneness.

 

10.        Why is an acidic medium like lemon juice or cream of tartar added to flour while making puff pastry?

An acidic medium is added to puff pastry because:

 

-        The acid makes the gluten in the flour more pliable and extensible and improves the ability to hold in the steam during the aeration while baking.

-        Acids reduce the PH and this aids the pastry in acquiring greater volume and the layers become more distinguishable, thinner and better baked.

 

11.        Why should the dough and the fat be approximately the same consistency when making puff pastry?

 

Dough and the fat should be of the same consistency because if not, during the rolling, whichever were softer would be rolled much thinner. This will result with the fat tending to ooze out of the dough.

 

12.        Why is puff pastry allowed to stand for half an hour before baking?

 

After a lot of the rolling and folding involved during the pre preparation of puff pastry, it is obvious that there will be considerable strength and elasticity in the gluten formed. This elasticity will cause the product to ‘draw up’ if it is not allowed a good rest before the baking. If it were baked immediately, the heat would soften it at once because of its decreased resistance to the pull exerted by the gluten and will become misshapen. In some cases, the filling will also ooze out.

 

13.What factors control the volume of choux pastry?

 

Egg albumin is extensible and will be inflated by internal pressures of gases, air and steam. Thus the pastry increases in volume and expansion ceases when the egg white loses their extensibility and gas holding power. Thus, the volume of choux pastry will depend only slightly upon the strength of the gluten n the flour but more on the gas holding power of the albumin in the egg. Therefore, fresh eggs are ideal for choux pastry, as the strength of the albumin is greater than that of aged or older eggs.

 

14    Why are ‘stale’ egg whites recommended in the making of meringues?

 

Stale refers to the fact that the egg whites have been exposed to air for some time. It does not refer to old eggs. Stale egg whites have less moisture due to evaporation, hence they whip better.

 

15. Why do Swiss rolls crack sometimes during rolling?

 

This happens because:

-  Too little egg in the mixture, hence less moisture  hence less pliable

-        Uneven spreading of the batter thus having thick and thin areas which will cause cracking.

-        Warped baking sheets/trays

-        Too hard flour

-        Too mixture on the tray, hence too thick and this will crack while rolling

-        Rolling is done too long after removing from the oven. This means evaporation of surface moisture leading to dryness and eventual cracking of the cake.